Cardiac Troponin I (cTnI) assay by immunochromatography method: Principle, Procedure, Interpretation and results

Rapid Assay for detection of Human Cardiac Troponin I (cTnl) in Serum/Plasma & Whole Blood by ImmunoChromatography

Fig. Troponin I kit showing Positive result

Principle:

This test utilizes the principle of immunochromatography, with a unique two-site sandwich immunoassay on a nitrocellulose membrane. The conjugate pad contains two components - monoclonal anti-cTnl conjugated to colloidal gold and rabbit IgG conjugated to colloidal gold. As the test sample flows through the membrane assembly of the device, the highly specific anti-cTnl antibody - colloidal gold conjugate complexes with cTnl in the sample and travels on the membrane due to capillary action along with rabbit IgG-colloidal gold conjugate. This sample moves further on the membrane to the test region (T) where it is immobilized by another specific anti-cTnl antibody coated on the membrane leading to the formation of a pink-purple band. A detectable colored band is formed if cTnl level is equal to or greater  than 0.1 ng/ml. The absence of this colored band in the test region indicates cTnl concentration < 0.1 ng/ml.

BCR/ABL1 Testing: Introduction, indications, methods and interpretation

Fig. BCR-ABL1 fusion gene (Philadelphia chromosome)

BCR-ABL1 refers to a gene sequence found in an abnormal chromosome 22 of some people with certain forms of leukemia. Unlike most cancers, the cause of chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) and some other leukemias can be traced to a single, specific genetic abnormality in one chromosome. The presence of the gene sequence known as BCR-ABL1 confirms the diagnosis of CML and a form of acute lymphoblastic lymphoma (ALL). Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) is part of a group of diseases called the myeloproliferative disorders, with an estimated 4600 newly diagnosed cases and 850 deaths in 2005. More than 95% of patients with CML have the distinctive Philadelphia chromosome (Ph1) that results from a reciprocal translocation between the long arms of

Zika virus : epidemiology, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment and prevention

What is Zika Virus ?

Zika virus falls under member of Flavivirus.  The vector for Zika vius is Aedes mosquito. Zika virus is an emerging mosquito-borne virus that was first isolated in Zika forest of Uganda in 1947. Since then, it has been observed mainly in Africa, with small and sporadic outbreaks in Asia.

Fig. Zika virus is transmitted by daytime mosquitoes
under the genus Aedes.
Credit: Photo from Wikipedia

Where has Zika virus been found?

·  Prior to 2015, Zika virus outbreaks have occurred in areas of Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Islands.

·   In May 2015, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) issued an alert regarding the first confirmed Zika virus infections in Brazil.

·   Currently, outbreaks are occurring in many countries.

·         Zika virus will continue to spread and it will be difficult to determine how the virus will spread over time.

Photometry: Principle, applications and types

Photometry

Fig. Principle of colorimetry

When light is passed through a coloured solution, certain wavelengths are selectively absorbed giving a plot of the absorption spectrum of the compound in solution. The wavelength at which maximum absorption is called the absorption maximum (λ_max) of that compound. The light that is not absorbed is transmitted through the solution and gives the solution its colour.

Photometric instruments measure transmittance, which is defined as follows:

                               Intensity of the emergent (or transmitted) light         Ie

Transmittance (T)= ------------------------------------------------------------- = ------

                                               Intensity of the incident light                    Io

Transmittance is usually expressed on a range of 0 to 100%.

If the concentration of the substance in solution is increased linearly, or if the path length that the light beam has to traverse is increased, transmittance falls exponentially. So a term absorbance is defined so that it is directly proportional to the concentration of the substance.

                                                Ie

Absorbance (A)= log1/T = log  ----

                                                Io

Absorbance has no units. Photometric instruments electronically convert the measured transmittance to absorbance values.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) : Formation, composition, function, pathological state and biochemical analysis

A. Formation

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colourless fluid filling the ventricles and subarachnoid space. CSF production is a result of the combined processes of diffusion, pinocytosis and active transfer. The majority is produced by selective dialysis of blood plasma by a specialized sponge-like structure called the "choroid plexus" of third, lateral and fourth ventricles.

Fig. CSF collection

The anatomy of the ventricular system allows for movement of CSF in and around all the major structures of the brain. From the lateral ventricles located within the cerebral hemisphere, it circulates through the foramina of Monro into the third ventricle. At its caudal end, the third ventricle is connected by aqueduct of Sylvius to the fourth ventricle. CSF then flows into the basal cisterns and subarachnoid space by two lateral foramina of Lusckha and median foramina of Magendie. From the cisterns the CSF flows / throughout the subarachnoid space and over the hemispheric convexities and around the spinal cord.

Protein separation techniques: Protein fractionation

Fig. Protein purification steps

Proteins differ in their molecular size and charge. They can be separated on the basis of their following properties:

1.       molecular size

2.       solubility

3.       electrical charge

4.       adsorption properties

5.       specific bioaffinity.

Many techniques for protein purification exist, but the emphasis here is on some of the most popular procedures and the principles involved in their use.  Protein fractionation is required to separate and characterize a protein in detail.

Qualitative and qualitative estimation of Proteins

Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules, constituting more than 50% of the dry weight of the cell. They are known to perform many different biological functions.  Qualitative and quantitative estimation of proteins in biological fluids is based on the physico-chemical properties of proteins.

Denaturation of proteins

In each type of protein, the three dimensional structure is essential for its biological function.  A protein in the biologically active form is termed as the native protein and the native state is called “optimum” state. The disruption of the three dimensional structure is called denaturation.  On denaturation, the primary structure remains intact.  It is an all or none phenomenon and does not cause any alteration in the quantity of protein present.

Transforming Blood Testing : ELizabeth Holmes invention

The next time you get a blood test, you might not have to go to the doctor and watch vials of blood fill up as the precious fluid is drawn from your arm. No more wondering to yourself, "Ah, how much more can they take before I pass out?" Instead you might be able to walk into a Walgreens pharmacy for a reportedly painless finger prick that will draw just a tiny drop of blood, thanks to Elizabeth Holmes, 30, the youngest woman and third-youngest billionaire on Forbes' newly released annual ranking of the 400 richest Americans.

Fig. Elizabeth Holmes featuring in Fortune magazine

Revolutionizing the blood test is a golden idea. Because of new testing methods developed by Holmes' startup Theranos, that lone drop can now yield a ton of information. The company can run hundreds of tests on a drop of blood far more quickly than could be done with whole vials in the past—and it costs a lot less.

A Billion-Dollar Idea

Holmes dropped out of Stanford at 19 to found what would become Theranos after deciding that her tuition money could be better put to use by transforming healthcare.

Traditional blood testing is shockingly difficult and expensive for a tool that's used so frequently. It also hasn't changed since the 1960s.  It's

Swine flu: Panic in India

Indian Health Minister JP Nadda has urged the public not to panic, as the number of deaths so far this year from swine flu passed 900 from 16,000 cases.

Rajasthan and Gujarat are among the worst affected states.

Officials in Ahmedabad, Gujarat's largest city, have announced restrictions on public gatherings as a precautionary measure.

The current outbreak, which began in December last year, is India's deadliest since 2010.

Nearly 4,000 people have been killed in separate outbreaks of the H1N1 virus since 2009.

Megaloblastic Anemia: Folate and Vitamin B12 Metabolism, Causes, diagnosis and therapy

Fig. Megaloblastic anemia showing megaloblastics cells

MACROCYTOSIS

An increased MCV can be due to a number of reasons but careful review of the patient's history and blood smear can narrow the diagnostic possibilities.  The differential can be divided into two broad categories based on RBC morphology.

Round macrocytosis-due to abnormal lipid composition of the eryth­rocyte membrane.  Common etiologies include:

            1. Alcoholism.

            2. Liver Disease.

            3. Renal Disease.

            4. Hypothyroidism ("myxedema of the red cell").

Chronic Cough: most common 8 reasons

Are you fed up with your stubborn cough? There are many reasons why a cough may not improve, and that can be frustrating for people and their doctors alike.

Reason 1: Irritated Airways After a Cold or Flu

The most common cause of chronic cough is predictable. It's the aftermath of a cold or other viral infection, says Norman H. Edelman, MD, chief medical officer of the American Lung Association. Most cold symptoms may go away after a few days. Your cough, though, can

Subacute Thyroiditis: Introduction, Pathogenesis, symptoms and treatment

What Is Subacute Thyroiditis?

Thyroiditis refers to an inflamed thyroid. Your thyroid is a gland in the front of your neck that controls your metabolism by releasing a variety of hormones.

Most types of thyroiditis do not cause pain in the thyroid gland. However, they typically lead to either hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) or hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid). Both of these conditions cause

Low blood sugar: What are the effects in our body

Fig. Effects of low blood sugar

Every cell in your body needs sugar (glucose) to function. When your blood sugar levels drop too low, your cells become starved for energy. Initially, that can cause minor symptoms, but if you don’t get your blood sugar levels up soon, you’re at risk of serious complications.

Effects of Low Blood Sugar on the Body

When your blood sugar (glucose) levels fall below the normal range, it’s called hypoglycemia, or insulin shock.

Low blood sugar can happen when you skip a meal. It can also happen if your pancreas releases more insulin than it should after you’ve eaten. The most common reason for low blood sugar is diabetes. In type 1 diabetes, the pancreas can no longer produce insulin. In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas doesn’t make enough, or your body can’t use it properly. To keep blood sugar levels from rising too much (hyperglycemia), you need the right amount of insulin. With

insufficient insulin, your blood sugar levels rise. Too much, and your blood sugar levels can plummet.

Bone Metabolism : Regulation (Part 2)

Calcium and phosphate balance

Soluble Ca²⁺, hydroxyapatite and calcitonin 

As calcium (Ca²⁺) is one of the main components of our bones, large amounts are present

Bone Metabolism: Bone formation and bone resorption (Part 1)

BONE FORMATION AND BONE RESORPTION

Fig. Bone Cells

Living bone is constantly being remodeled. The state of our bones is always close to an equilibrium between bone formation and bone resorption. In childhood and during the teens, bone formation is slightly ahead. We reach peak bone mass in the twenties, and from then onwards, resorption has the upper hand. There are two reasons for the

Chemotherapy and it's side effects

Chemotherapy side effects

Chemotherapy drugs kill cancer cells, but they can also damage healthy cells. This damage to healthy cells causes side effects. Different cells and tissues in the body tolerate chemotherapy differently. Chemotherapy drugs have the greatest effect on rapidly dividing cells, such as blood cells in the bone marrow, cells lining the mouth and gastrointestinal (GI) tract and hair follicle cells.

What causes side effects?

Cancer cells tend to grow fast, and chemo drugs kill fast-growing cells. But because these

Experiences from Ebola Outbreak zone

Interview with Photojournalist Neil Brandvold

Q&A: What It’s Like to Cover Ebola

After returning from West Africa, photojournalist Neil Brandvold is isolating himself as a precaution.

Photojournalist Neil Brandvold recently shot video of patients and caregivers in Liberia and Sierra Leone, at the epicenter of the Ebola outbreak that has killed more than 4,400 people in recent months.

Twitter, Facebook and Zinch may help you to find out Scholarships

Going to college can be expensive, especially after the four or five years it takes you to finish your undergraduate degree. The average American student graduates from college owing $20,000 in debt. However, there are ways to make your college experience less of a financial burden, and applying for scholarships is a fantastic way to do so. Not only will you receive financial rewards, but winning a scholarship can also help you gain stable employment after graduation or help you out if you're looking to apply for grad school. One great way to find scholarships is over various social media sites, including Twitter and

The Nobel Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine 2014

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2014

Photo: David Bishop, UCL

John O'Keefe

Prize share: 1/2

Photo: Kavli Institute, NTNU, 

CC-BY-SA-3.0 via Wikimedia Commons

May-Britt Moser

Prize share: 1/4

Photo: Kavli Institute, NTNU, CC-BY-SA-3.0 via Wikimedia Commons

Edvard I. Moser

Prize share: 1/4

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2014 was divided, one half awarded to John O'Keefe, the other half jointly to May-Britt Moser and Edvard I. Moser "for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain".

Reference:  "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2014". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 6 Oct 2014. http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2014/

Career opportunities in Medical Biochemistry Degree

Biochemistry involves studying the chemistry of living things such as substances, compounds and processes. Biochemists combine the fields of microbiology, cell biology, genetics, chemistry, cell biology, and physics in their day-to-day work or experiments. They get into the most, minute characteristics of organisms, and their biological processes. They may be identifying the way in which DNA, which carries the genetic information, is